Cell-cell Interactions
in Rheumatoid
Arthritis Synovium
David A. Fox, MDa,*, Alison Gizinski, MDa, Rachel Morgan, BScb,
Steven K. Lundy, PhDb
Although the cause of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) remains unknown, insights into the
pathogenesis of RA have been achieved by careful study of inflammatory, immune,
and tissue-destructive processes that take place in synovial tissue. Successful
approaches have included ex vivo analysis of RA synovium, experiments in animal
model systems, and use of cultured cell lines, especially fibroblast-like synoviocytes,
derived from patients’ synovial tissue. These insights have led to remarkable advances
in the treatment of RA and other diseases, such as the use of tumor necrosis factor
(TNF)-blocking biologics.
None of the molecular targets of medications currently used in the treatment of RA
are expressed uniquely in synovial tissue. Instead, all of them are of great importance
in host defense as well. Recent research is revealing important molecules and pathways pertinent to joint inflammation and damage that may be less central to host
defense compared with currently targeted molecules. A conceptual framework for
such investigations is the realization that although RA synovium can display some
features of an immune organ and is justifiably regarded as a tertiary lymphoid structure, it also contains cells that are distinct from those found in primary or secondary
lymphoid tissue, namely, the intrinsic structural cells of the joint such as fibroblastlike synoviocytes.
Grant support: David Fox: NIH RO-1 AR38477; Alison Gizinski: American College of
Rheumatology Research and Education Foundation; Rachel Morgan: Immunology Training
Grant and Rackham Pre-doctoral Merit Fellowship: Steven Lundy: Arthritis Foundation Arthritis
Investigator Award and NIH K Award.
a Division of Rheumatology and Rheumatic Diseases Research Core Center, 3918 Taubman
Center, 1500 East Medical Center Drive, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
b Division of Rheumatology and Rheumatic Diseases Research Core Center, 109 Zina Pitcher
Place, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: dfox@umich.edu
KEYWORDS
Synovial fibroblasts T lymphocytes B lymphocytes
Antigen-presenting cells Endothelial cells Cytokines
Rheum Dis Clin N Am 36 (2010) 311–323
doi:10.1016/j.rdc.2010.02.004 rheumatic.theclinics.com
0889-857X/10/$ – see front matter ª 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
It is clear that no one cell type explains the pathologic behavior of RA synovial
tissue. It is the interactions between these cells that define the disease. The 3 most
abundant cell populations in RA synovium are the monocyte/macrophage synoviocytes (type A), the fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) (type B), and T lymphocytes
(which are strikingly heterogeneous). Other critically important cells of the RA synovium include B lymphocytes, plasma cells, dendritic cells, mast cells, endothelial cells,
osteoclasts, and adjacent chondrocytes. These various cell types can interact in 2
general ways: first through secreted mediators, notably inflammatory cytokines
such as TNF, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-17, and many others; and second through direct
cell-cell contact that is mediated by cell surface receptors and ligands, including
some membrane-anchored cytokines.
This article focuses on selected cell-cell interactions that may be important in the
pathogenesis of RA. It is hoped that the relative molecular specificity of some of these
interactions for events in the joint compared with the systemic immune response will
provide more specific targets (Table 1) for a new generation of biologic and nonbiologic therapeutics.
HOMOTYPIC AND AUTOCRINE INTERACTIONS OF FLS
Cadherin-11
During the course of RA, the cells of the synovial lining undergo extensive hyperplasia
to form the synovial pannus that invades and destroys cartilage and bone. Recent
discoveries have highlighted a critical role for cadherin-11 in these events. Cadherin-11 has been identified as a strongly expressed intercellular adhesion molecule
on human and mouse FLS.1,2 Transfection of L cells with cadherin-11 led to the formation of sheet-like structures with an organization similar to that seen in synovial lining1;
furthermore, cadherin-11 localized to cell-to-cell junctions between FLS.2 Joints in
cadherin-11 null mice had an underdeveloped synovial lining and decreased extracellular matrix.2 These data indicate that cadherin-11 plays a vital role in the formation of
the synovial lining layer by mediating FLS/FLS connections.
Cadherin-11 staining correlated strongly with cellular infiltration of macrophages
and T lymphocytes in RA synovium.3 Cadherin-11 staining also correlated with erythrocyte sedimentation rate and C-reactive protein level although not as strongly.3 Cadherin-11 expression in synovium is not specific to RA, because cadherin-11 staining
on synovial biopsies was similar in inflamed joints from RA, osteoarthritis (OA), and
psoriatic arthritis (PsA).3 There was also a positive correlation between cadherin-11
staining of lung tissue from patients with RA-associated interstitial pneumonitis (IP)
and CD41 T-cell infiltration of the lung.3 Cadherin-11 null mice showed an average
of 50% reduction in clinical arthritis activity in the K/BxN serum transfer model.2
Table 1
Important cell-cell interactions in RA synovium
Cell Types Potential New Molecular Targets
FLS-FLS Cadherin-11, fractalkine
FLS-T B7-H3, IL-15
T-APC OX40, CCL20, IL-7
B-T CXCL13, ICOS, OX40, BAFF
B-FLS BAFF, osteopontin
Leucocyte-endothelial Ley/H
Please see text for explanation of abbreviations.
312 Fox et al
Cadherin-11 has been explored as a possible therapeutic target using the same
mouse serum transfer model. Cadherin-11-Fc and an anticadherin-11 mAb ameliorated clinical arthritis when administered with arthritogenic serum.2 More significant
for potential treatment of human disease, anticadherin-11 mAb ameliorated established arthritis in a modified K/BxN serum transfer model.2
Fractalkine and its Receptor
Fractalkine (FKN) is a potent chemoattractant and adhesion molecule that is found in
increased levels in RA synovium. RA FLS secrete FKN and express its receptor,
CX3CR1.4 Soluble FKN induced proliferation of FLS that was blocked by addition of
anti-CX3CR1.5 Even in the absence of sFKN, the antibody was able to decrease
FLS proliferation, revealing an autocrine growth loop.5 FKN also induced migration
of RA FLS and caused significant reorganization of F-actin within FLS.4 It is likely
that FKN could act in an autocrine fashion to aid in pannus invasion of the bone
and cartilage through FLS growth and migration.
FLS/T CELL INTERACTIONS
In RA, FLS and other cells produce chemokines that attract T cells to the joint. FLS and
T cells then interact in the synovium through secreted factors and direct cell-to-cell
interactions, resulting in activation of both cell types. FLS proliferate when cocultured
with CD41 T cells, especially when RA T cells are used.5
Synovial T cells in RA patients include an expanded population of CD41CD28 cells
and this subset of cells in particular greatly enhances FLS proliferation. CD41CD28
cells, which are sometimes considered to be senescent, aberrantly express CX3CR1,
and anti-CX3CR1 decreases the FLS growth-promoting activity of these cells without
a significant effect on CD41CD281 T cells.5 Stimulation of CD41CD28 T cells by FKN
through CX3CR1 increases TNFa production, and TNFa can then act on FLS to
increase growth, FKN secretion, and CX3CR1 expression.4,5 These data suggest an
important relationship between TNFa and FKN/CX3CR1 in FLS/T cell interactions in
the RA joint, in which production and action of these molecules occur in linked paracrine and autocrine loops involving T cells and FLS.
IL-15
IL-15 is constitutively expressed on FLS and is a potent T-cell growth factor that can
cause activation/proliferation of effector T cells (Teff) and regulatory T cells (Treg) in Tcell/FLS cocultures.6 Moreover, IL-15 can decrease apoptosis of various cell types
including FLS and T cells.7,8 The IL-15 receptor is a trimer (IL-15Ra,b,gc) and subunits
of IL-15R are expressed by various cell types, including FLS and T cells.7 IL-15 can
function as a secreted or membrane-bound cytokine, with signaling similar to other
cytokines through the full trimeric IL-15R, or through dimeric IL-15Rbgc receptor (cis